Black and white camera technology only appeared in 1839, only 11 years ago.
So for the vast majority of observation records.
Although the painter was in an era where stars could be seen, the coordinate system could only be determined and recorded with the naked eye.
After all, the scale of the universe itself is already very large for humans, and there are two stages of error between hand-drawing and the naked eye.
Therefore, when these errors are fed back to the observation records, the deviation values will be seriously inconsistent with the actual images.
Of course.
Considering that some students are a little confused about astronomical knowledge, such as which planets cannot be seen by the naked eye if they do not emit light, I will explain one thing first:
What exactly does the observation record record?
From a qualitative point of view, observation records can be divided into two types:
One is visual observation.
The second is telescopic observation.
If you still can’t understand the above sentence, you can really ask someone else.
The celestial objects that humans can see with the naked eye are determined by the "visual magnitude" of the celestial object, which is the brightness of the star that an observer sees with the naked eye on Earth.
The apparent magnitude can be a negative number. The more negative it is, the higher the brightness will be, and vice versa.
Celestial objects with an apparent magnitude greater than +6 are almost impossible to observe with the naked eye.
For example, Pluto is +13.65 and Neptune is +7.9.
So under the condition of naked eye observation.
Except for Uranus, which is visible under extreme conditions.
The only five planets that can usually be seen are Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.
Therefore, in star maps before the invention of telescopes, 99% of the records were stars.
As for the telescope, it is different. It can observe many planets, including Neptune, Pluto, various asteroids, etc.
certainly.
The word "many" here refers to the naked eye.
If compared with star detection, planet detection is countless times more difficult.
Because planets do not emit visible light and are generally not large in size, they can only appear by reflecting the light of the star.
Since it is difficult to directly observe planets, in the current astronomical community, indirect methods such as Doppler spectroscopy and transit methods are mainly used to capture planets.
Doppler spectroscopy uses the tiny shaking of the star caused by the planet's gravity to determine the existence of the planet, and can calculate the planet's mass and other information.
The transit rule determines the existence of a planet based on the decrease in star brightness observed when the planet crosses in front of the star, and can infer the mass and size of the planet, and even its internal structure and other physical factors.
In addition, when a planet passes through the star plane, spectroscopic analysis can be used to investigate the dynamics and composition of the planet's atmosphere, etc. This is also the technical support that you can often see in the news for discovering that a certain exoplanet may be suitable for survival.
As of the update of this chapter, a total of only 5113 planets outside the solar system have been confirmed to exist.
More than 97% of the planets have not been directly observed, but have been confirmed through the methods introduced above. (Check the website exoplaalog/, if you are interested, you can save it and update it in real time. A new one was discovered yesterday)
In fact, it was not until 2004 that astronomers directly observed a planet outside the solar system for the first time, called 2M1207b.
OK, let’s return to the original topic.
Mentioned it a long time ago.
The astronomical telescope was invented in 1609 by Galileo Galilei.
Therefore, observation records before 1609 are all naked-eye observations and are mainly used to assist reference.
The data used to calculate the resolution are all telescopic observation records after 1609, including hand-drawn images between 1609 and 1839, and black-and-white images after 1839.
This is also the reason why out of tens of thousands of observation records, only more than 4,000 will eventually be used as screening samples:
These are records taken with astronomical telescopes or hand-drawn. Only at this scale can it be possible to record the existence of Pluto.
Generally speaking.
In terms of mathematical definition, the accuracy of hand-drawn observation records for stars is only about 5%.
That is to say, out of 100 records, there are about 5 records that meet the calculation results of pure mathematics.
"The bank deviation value is 0.0072, and no obvious abnormality was found in file No. 532!"
"The bank deviation value is 0.0151, and no obvious abnormalities were found in file No. 259!"
"The moving trajectory of file No. 0.4496777 with Yellow Longitude Deviation Value is obvious!"
"Include it!"
"Huang Jing Deviation"
As time goes by, each observation record is identified and classified.
Most of them were reinstalled into the originally sealed files, but a few were left on the desktop.
Looking at the small pile of paper two centimeters thick next to him, Xu Yun wiped the sweat from his forehead and exhaled a thick breath.
be honest.
Today's scene was more difficult than he expected.
In Xu Yun's previous life, when he was still not doing business, he once attended a lecture given by Mr. Zhang Jiaxiang under the organization of his work unit.
At the lecture.
Mr. Zhang Jiaxiang mentioned his respected teacher, Academician Zhang Yuzhe, the founder of modern Chinese astronomy. That part of the story is still unforgettable to Xu Yun.
Academician Zhang Yuzhe was born in 1902, and he discovered the asteroid No. 1125, China Star, in 1928.
In 1950.
Academician Zhang Yuzhe was appointed director of the Purple Mountain Observatory of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and carried out asteroid orbit determination.
But let alone supercomputing at that time, there were not even half a part for ordinary computers in China. The country would not establish the preparatory committee for the Institute of Computing Technology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences until six years later, and with the help of Big Brother, it obtained the M3 computer
Relevant information.
Until 1958.
China has only produced a tube computer capable of 30 operations per second.
Therefore, in the 1950s, Academician Zhang Yuzhe and Mr. Li Heng organized a team of more than 70 people to calculate and distinguish observation records with the naked eye.
Everyone should be more or less familiar with the general environment at that time in 1950.
At that time, New China had just been established, with a lot of waste waiting to be done, and the country's money bag was tight.
Not to mention scientific research, there are not even enough airplanes on the ceremony:
Only 17 aircraft could be divided into 6 echelons at the ceremony, and 9 P-51s flew back and forth twice.
Therefore, at that time, Academician Zhang Yuzhe and his colleagues did not have much funds to take photos because the film was very expensive.
The observation data they analyzed mainly came from Big Brother, who had a good relationship with us at the time and transmitted more than 7,000 observation records in three years.
There are indeed a lot of them, but there is a very troublesome thing about this thing:
They are all scanned versions, and the difficulty of identification and the original are completely different concepts.
It is under these conditions.
Academician Zhang Yuzhe and others gritted their teeth to derive the formula, and then compared the observation records according to the difference.
Finally, between 1950 and 1954, they discovered more than 40 new stars, laying an extremely solid foundation for the development of Chinese astronomy.
Say something not nice.
Comparison with the naked eye is a very primitive, helpless, and even 'stupid' method.
But before the advent of computers, this was the only option available.
It was true in 1950, and it was true in 1850.
Xu Yun then took a deep breath and continued proofreading.
I saw him getting another piece of paper and quickly starting to write according to the previous calculation process.
Xu Yun looked at the deviation value of the file numbered 1111 in front of him and frowned slightly.
Display according to the notes on the portfolio.
This is an observation image taken by the Greenwich Observatory in July 1846.
Recorded through the galactic coordinate system, there are two accompanying pictures that are also black and white photos.
Theoretically speaking.
The coordinate difference of this observation record should be accurate to four digits after the decimal point. Taking the example of moving from Magic City to Jinmen mentioned before, the deviation value that can be determined from normal observation records is the difference between Magic City and Jinmen.
The difference in longitude and latitude between cities is relatively wide.
For example, it may be from Songjiang to Jinmen, or it may be from Chongming Island to Jinmen. Only the specific city can be determined.
However, the accuracy of this observation record is very high. It can be determined that it is from Jing'an District, the magical capital, to Wuqing District, Jinmen. At most, the streets are not clearly distinguishable.
However, the value calculated by Xu Yun is difficult to complement the trajectory of the file migration. It roughly ran to Pudong.
See this situation.
Xu Yun hesitated for a moment and classified it into a category with obvious movement trajectories.
Maybe there is a problem when entering the coordinate system.
After all, the recording of coordinates in the 19th century was still somewhat primitive and probably had little impact.
that's all.
Time continues to pass.
seven thirty
eight thirty
nine o'clock
nine twenty
More than three hours later.
John Peter Gustave Lejeune Dirichlet put down his pen and said:
"The movement trajectory of the file No. 0.78124229 with the bank deviation value is obvious!"
Finished speaking.
He subconsciously took out another piece of calculation paper and prepared for the next calculation.
But what surprised him was.
This time, the assistant beside him did not report the coordinates again, but said in a somewhat excited tone:
"Mr. Dirichlet, all observation records have been calculated!"
Dirichlet was stunned when he heard this.
Immediately, he suddenly raised his head and looked around.
as expected.
All colleagues at the scene had put down their pens at this time, and Riemann was summarizing the observation records they had selected one by one.
See this situation.
Dirichlet didn't feel relaxed at all, but became more and more nervous.
It is clear.
The results of everyone's hard work all night have reached the stage of final verification.
Whether or not we can find the "Conan Star" all depends on this one move!
Then Riemann moved the collected documents to Gauss and said respectfully:
"Teacher, there are 218 records in total, and they are all being summarized."
Gauss nodded to him and motioned for him to put it in front of him.
During the previous orbit identification process, Gauss had been sitting aside to relax and did not participate in the calculation process.
This is not because he is too old to participate in the calculation process.
It’s because the only person on the scene, including Xu Yun, who has the ability to calculate Pluto’s orbital equation through offset coordinates is Gauss.
Of course.
Maybe Wheat and Riemann can do it in the future. After all, one deduced Maxwell's equations and the other tinkered with the Riemann hypothesis.
But currently they are only youth versions and have not completed the version update.
As for Xu Yun?
to be honest.
Unless he was given a few days to calculate slowly, there was nothing he could do with the data.
After all, if it were that simple, Pluto would have been discovered long ago.
What Xu Yun could do was to slightly change some of the data and add correction values recognized by later generations.
After all documents are placed.
Gauss picked up the pen and started calculating directly on his seat without any movement before casting.
I saw him first write down a formula on paper:
y row = osa-d row/d ground os (row/ground a).
z= 4.25 × 10-6os(0.37π)os(360a)
x=a.
y = osa-0.387os4. 15a,z = 4.25×10-6os(0. 37π)os(360a).
This equation is very simple.
It is the wave spiral motion equation of the planet in the system relative to a certain point on the earth's equator under the double wave coordinate axis.
Then, after introducing another set of structural formulas and adding known long-term terms, the calculation can be formally carried out.
Xu Yun and Riemann accompanied Gauss, providing advice as "descendants of fat fish".
"(x+a/2)2+(x+b/2)2=a2/4+b/4?"
"The coordinate difference is 0.6234"
Gauss's pen tip danced rapidly on the calculation paper, and data items were quickly listed.
But students who know Pluto all know it.
Pluto's trajectory is actually very unethical, such as its revolution orbit.
Pluto's orbit is a large ellipse. Its perihelion is 4.4 billion kilometers, even closer than Neptune's orbit, but its aphelion is as high as 7.4 billion kilometers.
In terms of mathematical calculations, it is actually a bit difficult to rely solely on the difference in pictures.
So it didn't take long.
The beating frequency of the Gaussian pen tip slowed down, and it was obvious that something needed to be thought about.
ten minutes later.
The pen tip paused for the first time.
Although Gauss soon continued to write, more pauses occurred in the following time.
Fortunately, with the help of Xu Yun and Riemann, Xiaomai, who was in charge of the chores, occasionally came up with some ideas, so the whole process continued with difficulty but tenaciously.
at the same time.
Looking at the few people in the shed who were talking about Taoism, William Whewell outside the shed suddenly thought of something.
I saw him summoning Lao Tang and giving him some instructions.
A few minutes later.
William Whewell walked into the shed carrying a plate of food, came to a few people, and whispered to Xu Yun:
"Classmate Luo Feng, I have prepared some food and water. If you are hungry or thirsty, just take it."
Xu Yun glanced at his dean who had squeezed into the center behind him. Although he felt that the other party's behavior was a bit strange, he still took the plate and thanked him:
"Thank you, Mr. Whewell"
The words just fell.
There was a clicking sound outside the shed.
Xu Yun blinked and looked towards the place where the sound came from.
I saw Lao Tang holding a camera in his hand, standing not far from the shed, and the camera was pointed right inside the shed.
Xu Yun glanced at William Whewell who was standing behind Gauss with an expression of "I think it can be calculated like this", and then looked at the plate in his hand:
""
Fortunately, Xu Yun had handed over all the details of the hint to Gauss. Seeing that Whewell was still preparing to expose it, he simply put down the plate and left the shed alone.
The time to wait for the calculation results is long and boring, but some students do not want to miss this good show.
Therefore, while Gauss and others were calculating data, Lao Tang and others simply opened the telescope to students to observe the starry sky.
This was also one of Xu Yun's previous plans.
Compared with the three rounds of experiments on the photoelectric effect, tonight's students had a higher degree of participation.
The students who can get into Cambridge these days, not only have high quality and self-cultivation, but at least they won’t make a lot of noise in such a scene.
Therefore, the whole process basically did not have much impact on the other side of the shed.
When Xu Yun came to the telescope, his old acquaintance Tian Haosuo happened to come down from the stargazing position and finished an observation.
At this moment.
This Eastern compatriot, who had just finished the data report not long ago, had a shocked expression on his face and stared blankly at the sky.
Xu Yun walked to him, raised his head and said:
"Brother Haosuo, the picture is beautiful, isn't it?"
"It's Brother Luo Feng."
Tian Hao was shocked at first when he heard the voice, but he relaxed a lot after discovering that it was Xu Yun.
He took a deep breath and nodded thoughtfully:
"To be honest, Brother Luo Feng, this is the first time I have seen such a beautiful scene since my little brother was born."
"There are clouds in the ancients, the sky is connected with the clouds and waves, and the morning mist is connected, and the stars are about to turn and dance with thousands of sails, but I am afraid that the layman Yi An who wrote this poem did not know that the 'star river' in her mouth is actually so vast."
Looking at Tian Haosuo with a sigh on his face, Xu Yun opened his mouth, wanting to say something inappropriate:
Brother, not only has Xiao Li seen the Milky Way, but she can also watch it for as long as she wants.
However, considering that such flirtatious talk would easily lead to punishment, Xu Yun chose to keep his mouth shut.
Of course.
Tian Hao's loss of composure was not beyond Xu Yun's expectation.
After all, the Tatara Telescope is the jewel of the Greenwich Observatory, and remained among the top three star-gazing equipment throughout the 19th century.
Don't talk about Tian Haosuo.
Even ordinary Cambridge students have little chance to come into contact with it on weekdays.
A "newbie" who has never observed the universe with an astronomical telescope suddenly sees the vast starry sky. This impact will directly impact his cognitive outlook.
In fact, even in 2022, reactions similar to Tian Haosuo are very common.
After all, the scale of the universe is so vast that every mention of some numbers will make people feel dizzy.
For example, the most common sun.
The combined mass of all other materials in the solar system is less than 1% of the mass of the sun. Its mass is about 330,000 times the mass of the earth, and its volume is large enough to accommodate 1.3 million earths.
Is this considered big?
Big wool!
9,500 light-years away from us, there is a red supergiant called UY Scutum.
Guess what its data is?
The answer is that it has a diameter of 2.37 billion kilometers. The diameter alone is a full 1,700 times larger than the sun.
This means it is large enough to hold about 4.5 billion suns, or 6,500 trillion earths.
Even if we fly around this planet at the speed of light, it will take about 9 hours to complete.
However, this estimate includes an error of about 192 solar radii, which means that the radius of UY Scutum ranges from 1516 to 1900 solar radii.
If calculated based on the minimum radius, its size will be smaller than V354 Cephei and VX Sagittarius, but it is still quite terrifying.
There is also a famous star called A1.
Its mass is about 300 times that of the sun, and its brightness is one million times that of the sun. It is also the largest and brightest star currently observed.
If Tianjin Fan was born in the star system where A1 is located, then his Sun Fist can kill Vegeta in a flash
There is a number on the official website of ESA, the European Space Agency, which updates the discovery record of the Gaia probe:
The number of stars currently observed has exceeded 1.8 billion. It just drew the clearest image of the Milky Way a month ago. It is estimated that there are about 200-400 billion stars in the Milky Way.
The Milky Way is about 200,000 light-years in diameter and is one of more than 50 galaxies in the Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is a member of the Local Supercluster.
The local supercluster contains hundreds of galaxy clusters and covers an area of about 100 million light-years.
The largest galaxy cluster is the Virgo Cluster, which contains at least 2,500 galaxies.
The upper-level structure of this supercluster is the Laniakea supercluster, which contains at least 100,000 galaxies, and above it there are structures extending to tens of billions of light-years.
These galaxies range from large to small, and the Milky Way is just one of the medium-sized galaxies.
Small galaxies have about 10 billion stars, such as the Large Magellanic Cloud, which is closest to us.
Large galaxies are much larger than we imagine.
For example, a galaxy 3 billion light-years away from us has been found to have a diameter 160 times that of the Milky Way and a mass about 240 billion times that of the Milky Way.
The astronomical community currently names this galaxy after the giant "Alcyoneus" in ancient Greek mythology. If the star structure there is similar to that of the Milky Way, the number of stars would be about 960 trillion.
Well, none of the above numbers are wrong.
In reality, you often see the word "astronomical number" used to describe a huge number, because when it comes to the scale of the universe, some numbers are so big that they will make your scalp numb. (I sincerely recommend that you must read it in your lifetime.
For a starry sky, the observatories currently available in China include Purple Mountain Observatory, Qingdao Observatory, Yanjing Observatory Xinglong Observatory, Magic City Sheshan Observatory, etc. Tickets are not very expensive)
"Starry sky"
Looking at the stars in the sky above his head, Tian Haosuo hesitated for a moment and suddenly asked Xu Yun:
"Brother Luo Feng, do you believe in fate?"
"Is your life and mine just like the stars in the sky? Some people are born as stars, while others live their entire lives as dim as planets?"
Xu Yun looked at the Eastern student with some strange eyes, shook his head decisively and said:
"I do not believe."
be honest.
Xu Yun is optimistic about life in outer space. After all, the universe is too big.
At the same time, the several time travels brought about by the halo inevitably made him a little awed by the mysterious side. This was a game created by some high-dimensional life, and there were a bunch of people watching him outside the screen.
But if he talks about fate, he really doesn't believe it.
Even if he is a character written by an author, he does not believe that everything is destined.
joke.
I really didn’t think he had ever been an online writer. Those pigeons were pretty good at knowing the plot three hours ahead of the readers. How could they determine their fate?
Then he glanced at Tian Haosuo and thought to himself, this kid must have lost his mind due to the impact of the starry sky and started thinking about life, right?
So he thought for a while and said to Tian Haosuo:
"Brother Haosuo, let's put it this way. I don't know much about it. At least I have seen many examples of people who changed their fate against the will of heaven."
"Some people start from scratch and build a business empire."
"There are also ordinary citizens who have taken advantage of the trend and become famous video and artistic performers."
"There are also people who were just ordinary workers who mistakenly entered the literary world because of their hobby of writing. In the end, they gained both fame and wealth, and achieved freedom of wealth."
After speaking, he sighed and continued:
"I don't deny that some people may have a smooth development trajectory, but what is the proportion of these people?"
"Look at our site and the professors who are calculating the data. Can this be summed up in the word fate?"
"At least for the public, fate is often just an excuse to comfort themselves."
In his previous life, Xu Yun first engaged in scientific research and then went into business. He also engaged in writing. His social circle was wider than that of most people.
He has met all kinds of people in these three industries, and has seen too many examples of people who have changed their lives through hard work.
Life is very realistic and cruel. Some people are born in Rome, and some choose to lie down. Xu Yun also respects their choice.
After all, everyone's way of life is different.
But if you attribute all of this to the word "fate", it would be a bit self-paralyzing.
Seeing Tian Hao's move, Xu Yun said again:
"Brother Haosuo, let me correct another incorrect knowledge point of yours."
"That is, although the planet does not emit visible light, it does emit infrared rays. If you don't believe it, just find a professor on the spot, such as Professor Faraday, and tell him that infrared rays are not considered light. See if he doesn't knock you on the head."
"No matter how bad it is, you can find a star closer to it, and you can refract the light from it."
"However, stars may decay and explode, and eventually turn into soil that generates dust. Maybe you were a star in your previous life. How do you explain it in terms of fate?"
If Xu Yun's previous words were a bit like chicken soup, then the following words were a bit beyond Tian Haosuo's understanding.
Xu Yun noticed that the hands of this Eastern compatriot were trembling.
Afterwards, Tian Haosuo was silent for a long time, and his originally dim eyes became slightly brighter, and he said to Xu Yun again:
"Brother Luo Feng, so there really is no fate in the world?"
Xu Yun sighed, patted his shoulder and said:
"Brother Haosuo, I have said almost everything that needs to be said. You and I are both adults. We should have our own judgments about whether some words are true or false."
After speaking, he paused, hesitated for a moment, and added:
"In addition, Brother Haosuo, let me give you another message."
Tian Haosuo was stunned for a moment, then quickly raised his hand to Xu Yunyi and said seriously:
"Please give me some advice from Brother Luo Feng."
Xu Yun looked up at the sky and spoke slowly:
"According to the principle of proton decay, even planets will explode one day. It doesn't matter if you don't understand. I'm telling you, the reader. The key point is later."
"Some of those scattered stars will form meteorites. As long as the timing is right, they will emit light when they enter the atmosphere."
"Although the time is short and it consumes one's own lifespan, it is indeed the light emitted by the planet itself."
"So Brother Hirosuo, what you said is wrong from beginning to end, from logic to physics."
Tian Haosuo was stunned immediately.
at the same time.
In a small shed not far away, Gauss also breathed a sigh of relief and gently put down his pen.
On the table in front of him, there were several observation records.
In these observation records, a certain area of them has been circled with a red pen, outlining a faintly visible star.
